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Edward Gibbon, 3 The History of the Fall and Decline of Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon.

3 The History of the Fall and Decline of Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon.

Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part III.

The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a fortified city.

As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers carefully levelled the ground, and removed every impediment that might interrupt its perfect regularity. Its form was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general's quarters, rose above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries occupied their respective stations; the streets were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. This important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no less familiar than that of the sword or pilum . Active valor may often be the present of nature; but such patient diligence can be the fruit only of habit and discipline. Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was almost instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks without delay or confusion.

Besides their arms, which the legendaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of fortification, and the provision of many days. Under this weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near twenty miles. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the column of march into an order of battle. The slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were placed in the rear. Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended their extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a time when every other virtue was oppressed by luxury and despotism.

If, in the consideration of their armies, we pass from their discipline to their numbers, we shall not find it easy to define them with any tolerable accuracy. We may compute, however, that the legion, which was itself a body of six thousand eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its attendant auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was composed of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men. Instead of being confined within the walls of fortified cities, which the Romans considered as the refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were encamped on the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed and permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the troops. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, four in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. The defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With regard to Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any important scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic tranquillity of each of those great provinces. Even Italy was not left destitute of a military force. Above twenty thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City Cohorts and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the monarch and the capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very loudly, demand our attention; but, in their arms and institutions, we cannot find any circumstance which discriminated them from the legions, unless it were a more splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline. The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to their greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful purpose of government.

The ambition of the Romans was confined to the land; nor was that warlike people ever actuated by the enterprising spirit which had prompted the navigators of Tyre, of Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to enlarge the bounds of the world, and to explore the most remote coasts of the ocean. To the Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather than of curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was directed only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and to protect the commerce of their subjects. With these moderate views, Augustus stationed two permanent fleets in the most convenient ports of Italy, the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but unwieldy castles of his rival. Of these Liburnians he composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to command, the one the eastern, the other the western division of the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a body of several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. If we review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow us to fix the entire establishment by sea and by land at more than four hundred and fifty thousand men: a military power, which, however formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch of the last century, whose kingdom was confined within a single province of the Roman empire. We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines.

We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so many independent and hostile states. Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same natural limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic Ocean.

That great peninsula, at present so unequally divided between two sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The kingdom of Portugal now fills the place of the warlike country of the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by the former on the side of the East, is compensated by an accession of territory towards the North. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, from the name of its capital, was styled the province of Tarragona. Of the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most obstinate. Confident in the strength of their mountains, they were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater extent than modern France.

To the dominions of that powerful monarchy, with its recent acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, which had comprehended above a hundred independent states. The sea-coast of the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, received their provincial appellation from the colony of Narbonne. The government of Aquitaine was extended from the Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between the Loire and the Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower Germany. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, and to fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island.

It comprehended all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as far as the Friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost her freedom, the country was irregularly divided between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom the most considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, the Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. As far as we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy race of savages. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed the field, and often renewed the contest. After their submission, they constituted the western division of the European provinces, which extended from the columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth of the Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and Danube. Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy.

It had been occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves along the banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried their arms and diffused their name from the Alps to the Apennine. The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by the Venetians. The middle part of the peninsula, that now composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was the ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized life. The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her infant victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and their posterity have erected convents. Capua and Campania possessed the immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little province of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of the Rhine and the Danube.

The latter of those mighty streams, which rises at the distance of only thirty miles from the former, flows above thirteen hundred miles, for the most part to the south-east, collects the tribute of sixty navigable rivers, and is, at length, through six mouths, received into the Euxine, which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of waters. The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were esteemed the most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks of the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the Inn.

The greatest part of the flat country is subject to the elector of Bavaria; the city of Augsburg is protected by the constitution of the German empire; the Grisons are safe in their mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked among the numerous provinces of the house of Austria. The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under the names of Noricum and Pannonia.

In their original state of independence, their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Under the Roman government they were frequently united, and they still remain the patrimony of a single family. They now contain the residence of a German prince, who styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as well as strength, of the Austrian power. It may not be improper to observe, that if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of Austria, and a part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the other dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the limits of the Roman Empire. Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, was a long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic.

The best part of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient appellation, is a province of the Venetian state, and the seat of the little republic of Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia; the former obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; but the whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the Christian and Mahometan power. After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the Save, it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister.

It formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we have already seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only province beyond the river. If we inquire into the present state of those countries, we shall find that, on the left hand of the Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been annexed, after many revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, during the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks on the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, preserves the memory of their ancient state under the Roman empire.

In the time of the Antonines, the martial regions of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a province. Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great monarchy. The kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived more solid advantages from the policy of the two Philips; and with its dependencies of Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the Ionian Sea. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the Roman empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan league, was usually denominated the province of Achaia. Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors.

The provinces of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of Trajan, are all comprehended within the limits of the Turkish power. But, instead of following the arbitrary divisions of despotism and ignorance, it will be safer for us, as well as more agreeable, to observe the indelible characters of nature. The name of Asia Minor is attributed with some propriety to the peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The most extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus and the River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the exclusive title of Asia. The jurisdiction of that province extended over the ancient monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in arts, though not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of Bithynia and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and from Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we may observe, that the northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or Roman garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, are the modern appellations of those savage countries. Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the Seleucidæ, who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful revolt of the Parthians confined their dominions between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean.

When Syria became subject to the Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of their empire: nor did that province, in its utmost latitude, know any other bounds than the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards the south, the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phoenicia and Palestine were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the jurisdiction of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, either in fertility or extent. * Yet Phoenicia and Palestine will forever live in the memory of mankind; since America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one, and religion from the other. A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably connected with their independence; and wherever, on some spots less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many settled habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman empire. The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what portion of the globe they should ascribe Egypt.

By its situation that celebrated kingdom is included within the immense peninsula of Africa; but it is accessible only on the side of Asia, whose revolutions, in almost every period of history, Egypt has humbly obeyed. A Roman præfect was seated on the splendid throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the Mamelukes is now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down the country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the Mediterranean, and marks on either side of the extent of fertility by the measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate towards the west, and along the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, and is now lost in the desert of Barca. From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above fifteen hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth seldom exceeds fourscore or a hundred miles.

The eastern division was considered by the Romans as the more peculiar and proper province of Africa. Till the arrival of the Phnician colonies, that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the most savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states of Tripoli and Tunis. The military government of Algiers oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united under Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by the modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at present for its piratical depredations, was noticed by the Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost of their geography. A city of their foundation may still be discovered near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were ever comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of Africa are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so idly celebrated by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused over the immense ocean that rolls between the ancient and the new continent. Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may observe, that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of about twelve miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the Mediterranean.

The columns of Hercules, so famous among the ancients, were two mountains which seemed to have been torn asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot of the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the former to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. * It is easier to deplore the fate, than to describe the actual condition, of Corsica. Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title from Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into fame and opulence. This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have formed so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to forgive the vanity or ignorance of the ancients.

Dazzled with the extensive sway, the irresistible strength, and the real or affected moderation of the emperors, they permitted themselves to despise, and sometimes to forget, the outlying countries which had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous independence; and they gradually usurped the license of confounding the Roman monarchy with the globe of the earth. But the temper, as well as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and accurate language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it extended in length more than three thousand miles from the Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was supposed to contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated land.

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3 The History of the Fall and Decline of Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon. 3 The History of the Fall and Decline of Roman Empire, von Edward Gibbon. 3 Η ιστορία της πτώσης και της παρακμής της Ρωμαϊκής Αυτοκρατορίας, του Edward Gibbon. 3 Historia de la caída y decadencia del Imperio Romano, de Edward Gibbon. 3 Histoire de la chute et du déclin de l'Empire romain, par Edward Gibbon. 3 Storia della caduta e del declino dell'impero romano, di Edward Gibbon. 3 エドワード・ギボン著『ローマ帝国衰亡史』。 3 Edvardo Gibono (Edward Gibbon) "Romos imperijos žlugimo ir nuosmukio istorija". 3 Historia upadku i schyłku Cesarstwa Rzymskiego, autorstwa Edwarda Gibbona. 3 The History of the Fall and Decline of Roman Empire, de Edward Gibbon. 3 "История падения и упадка Римской империи" Эдуарда Гиббона. 3 Roma İmparatorluğu'nun Çöküş ve Gerileyiş Tarihi, Edward Gibbon. 3 "Історія падіння та занепаду Римської імперії", Едвард Гіббон. 3 《罗马帝国衰亡史》,爱德华-吉本著。 3 《羅馬帝國衰亡史》,愛德華‧吉本著。

Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antoninies.—Part III. |||||||||age||||| Bölüm I: Antoninler Çağında İmparatorluğun Kapsamı.—Bölüm III.

The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a fortified city. Bir Roma lejyonunun kampı, müstahkem bir şehir görünümündeydi.

As soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers carefully levelled the ground, and removed every impediment that might interrupt its perfect regularity. Alan işaretlenir çizilmez, öncüler zemini dikkatlice düzleştirdiler ve mükemmel düzenliliğini bozabilecek her türlü engeli kaldırdılar. Its form was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. Şekli tam bir dörtgendi; ve yirmi bin Romalının kamp kurması için yaklaşık yedi yüz yardalık bir karenin yeterli olduğunu hesaplayabiliriz; ancak benzer sayıda kendi birliklerimiz, düşmana bu ölçüden üç kat daha fazla bir cephe açacaktır. In the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general’s quarters, rose above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries occupied their respective stations; the streets were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the rampart. Kampın ortasında, praetorium ya da generalin kamarası diğerlerinin üzerinde yükseliyordu; süvari, piyade ve yardımcılar kendi istasyonlarını işgal ettiler; sokaklar geniş ve tamamen düzdü ve çadırlarla sur arasında her tarafta altmış metrelik bir boşluk bırakılmıştı. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. Surun kendisi genellikle on iki fit yüksekliğindeydi, bir dizi güçlü ve karmaşık parmaklıklarla donanmış ve genişliğinin yanı sıra derinliği de on iki fitlik bir hendekle korunuyordu. This important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no less familiar than that of the sword or  pilum . Bu önemli iş, bizzat lejyonerlerin elleriyle yapılıyordu; kürek ve kazma kullanımı, kılıç veya pilum kullanımından daha az tanıdık değildi. Active valor may often be the present of nature; but such patient diligence can be the fruit only of habit and discipline. Aktif yiğitlik çoğu zaman doğanın hediyesi olabilir; ancak böylesine sabırlı bir gayret ancak alışkanlık ve disiplinin meyvesi olabilir. Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was almost instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks without delay or confusion. Trompet hareket işaretini verdiğinde, kamp neredeyse anında dağıldı ve birlikler gecikmeden veya kafa karışıklığı yaşamadan saflarına çekildi.

Besides their arms, which the legendaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of fortification, and the provision of many days. Efsanelerin pek de bir yük olarak görmediği silahlarının yanı sıra, mutfak mobilyaları, tahkimat aletleri ve birçok günün erzakları ile yüklüydüler. Under this weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near twenty miles. Modern bir askerin hassaslığını bastıracak bu ağırlık altında, yaklaşık altı saatte, yaklaşık yirmi mil ilerlemek için düzenli adımlarla eğitildiler. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions converted the column of march into an order of battle. Bir düşmanın ortaya çıkması üzerine bagajlarını bir kenara attılar ve kolay ve hızlı gelişmelerle yürüyüş kolunu bir savaş düzenine dönüştürdüler. The slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were placed in the rear. Sapancılar ve okçular cephede çarpıştı; yardımcılar ilk hattı oluşturdu ve lejyonların gücüyle desteklendi veya desteklendi; süvariler kanatları kapladı ve askeri motorlar arkaya yerleştirildi. Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended their extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a time when every other virtue was oppressed by luxury and despotism. Bunlar, diğer tüm erdemlerin lüks ve despotizm tarafından bastırıldığı bir zamanda, Roma imparatorlarının kapsamlı fetihlerini savundukları ve askeri bir ruhu korudukları savaş sanatlarıydı.

If, in the consideration of their armies, we pass from their discipline to their numbers, we shall not find it easy to define them with any tolerable accuracy. Ordularını göz önünde bulundurarak, disiplinlerinden sayılarına geçersek, onları kabul edilebilir bir doğrulukla tanımlamayı kolay bulamayız. We may compute, however, that the legion, which was itself a body of six thousand eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its attendant auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. Bununla birlikte, kendisi altı bin sekiz yüz otuz bir Romalıdan oluşan lejyonun, beraberindeki yardımcılarıyla birlikte yaklaşık on iki bin beş yüz kişiden oluşabileceğini hesaplayabiliriz. The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was composed of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men. Hadrian ve ardıllarının barışı tesis etmesi, bu zorlu tugayların en az otuzundan oluşuyordu; ve büyük olasılıkla üç yüz yetmiş beş bin kişilik bir sürekli kuvvet oluşturuyordu. Instead of being confined within the walls of fortified cities, which the Romans considered as the refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were encamped on the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the barbarians. Lejyonlar, Romalıların zayıflık ve ödlekliğin sığınağı olarak gördükleri müstahkem şehirlerin surları içine hapsedilmek yerine, büyük nehirlerin kıyılarında ve barbarların hudutları boyunca kamp kurmuşlardı. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed and permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the troops. İstasyonları çoğunlukla sabit ve kalıcı kaldığından, birliklerin dağılımını tarif etmeye cesaret edebiliriz. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, four in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. Başlıca kuvvet Ren ve Tuna üzerindeydi ve aşağıdaki oranlarda on altı lejyondan oluşuyordu: ikisi Aşağı Almanya'da ve üçü Yukarı Almanya'da; biri Rhætia'da, biri Noricum'da, dördü Pannonia'da, üçü Mæsia'da ve ikisi Dacia'da. The defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. Fırat'ın savunması, altısı Suriye'de ve diğer ikisi Kapadokya'da dikilen sekiz lejyona emanet edildi. With regard to Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any important scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic tranquillity of each of those great provinces. Mısır, Afrika ve İspanya ile ilgili olarak, herhangi bir önemli savaş sahnesinden çok uzakta oldukları için, bu büyük eyaletlerin her birinin iç huzurunu tek bir lejyon sağladı. Even Italy was not left destitute of a military force. İtalya bile askeri güçten yoksun bırakılmadı. Above twenty thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City Cohorts and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the monarch and the capital. Más de veinte mil soldados escogidos, distinguidos con los títulos de Cohortes de la Ciudad y Guardias Pretorianos, velaban por la seguridad del monarca y de la capital. Şehir Kohortları ve Prætorian Muhafızları unvanlarıyla ayırt edilen yirmi binden fazla seçilmiş asker, hükümdarın ve başkentin güvenliğini koruyordu. As the authors of almost every revolution that distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very loudly, demand our attention; but, in their arms and institutions, we cannot find any circumstance which discriminated them from the legions, unless it were a more splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline. Como autores de casi todas las revoluciones que distrajeron al imperio, los pretorianos reclamarán nuestra atención muy pronto y en voz muy alta; pero, en sus armas e instituciones, no podemos encontrar ninguna circunstancia que los distinguiera de las legiones, a menos que fuera una apariencia más espléndida y una disciplina menos rígida. İmparatorluğun dikkatini dağıtan hemen hemen her devrimin yazarları olarak, Praetorcular çok yakında ve çok yüksek sesle dikkatimizi çekmemizi isteyecekler; ancak silahlarında ve kurumlarında, daha görkemli bir görünüm ve daha az katı bir disiplin olmadıkça, onları lejyonlardan ayıran hiçbir koşul bulamıyoruz. The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to their greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful purpose of government. İmparatorlar tarafından sürdürülen donanma, büyüklükleri için yetersiz görünebilir; ama hükümetin her yararlı amacı için tamamen yeterliydi.

The ambition of the Romans was confined to the land; nor was that warlike people ever actuated by the enterprising spirit which had prompted the navigators of Tyre, of Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to enlarge the bounds of the world, and to explore the most remote coasts of the ocean. Romalıların hırsı toprakla sınırlıydı; Sur, Kartaca ve hatta Marsilya denizcilerini dünyanın sınırlarını genişletmeye ve okyanusun en ücra kıyılarını keşfetmeye sevk eden girişimci ruh, bu savaşçı insanları hiçbir zaman harekete geçirmemişti. To the Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather than of curiosity; the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was included within their provinces. Romalılar için okyanus meraktan çok korku konusu olmaya devam etti; Kartaca'nın yok edilmesinden ve korsanların kökünün kazınmasından sonra Akdeniz'in tamamı onların eyaletlerine dahil edildi. The policy of the emperors was directed only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and to protect the commerce of their subjects. İmparatorların politikası, yalnızca o denizin barışçıl hakimiyetini ve tebaasının ticaretini korumaya yönelikti. With these moderate views, Augustus stationed two permanent fleets in the most convenient ports of Italy, the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. Bu ılımlı görüşlerle Augustus, biri Adriyatik kıyısındaki Ravenna'da, diğeri Napoli Körfezi'ndeki Misenum'da olmak üzere İtalya'nın en uygun limanlarına iki kalıcı filo yerleştirdi. Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Deneyim, kadırgaları iki veya en fazla üç kürek sırasını geçer geçmez, gerçek hizmetten çok boş bir şatafat için uygun olduklarına eskileri ikna etmiş görünüyor. Augustus himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but unwieldy castles of his rival. Augustus'un kendisi, Actium zaferinde, kendi hafif firkateynlerinin (bunlara Liburnyalılar deniyordu) rakibinin yüksek ama hantal şatolarına üstünlüğünü görmüştü. Of these Liburnians he composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to command, the one the eastern, the other the western division of the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a body of several thousand marines. Bu Liburnyalılardan, Akdeniz'in biri doğu, diğeri batı tümenine komuta edecek iki Ravenna ve Misenum filosunu oluşturdu; ve filoların her birine birkaç bin denizciden oluşan bir birlik yerleştirdi. Besides these two ports, which may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three thousand soldiers. Roma donanmasının başlıca mevzileri sayılabilecek bu iki limanın yanı sıra, Provence kıyısındaki Frejus'ta çok hatırı sayılır bir kuvvet mevzilenmişti ve Euxine, kırk gemi ve üç bin asker tarafından korunuyordu. To all these we add the fleet which preserved the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. Tüm bunlara Galya ile Britanya arasındaki iletişimi koruyan donanmayı ve ülkeyi taciz etmek veya barbarların geçişini engellemek için Ren ve Tuna'da sürekli olarak tutulan çok sayıda gemiyi ekliyoruz. If we review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow us to fix the entire establishment by sea and by land at more than four hundred and fifty thousand men: a military power, which, however formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch of the last century, whose kingdom was confined within a single province of the Roman empire. İmparatorluk kuvvetlerinin bu genel durumunu gözden geçirecek olursak; süvarilerin yanı sıra piyadelerin; lejyonların, yardımcıların, muhafızların ve donanmanın; en liberal hesaplama, deniz ve kara yoluyla tüm düzeni dört yüz elli binden fazla adam olarak belirlememize izin vermeyecektir: ne kadar korkunç görünürse görünsün, geçen yüzyılın bir hükümdarı tarafından eşitlenen bir askeri güç, krallığı Roma imparatorluğunun tek bir eyaletiyle sınırlıydı. We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. Hadrian ve Antoninlerin gücünü yumuşatan ruhu ve destekleyen gücü açıklamaya çalıştık.

We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so many independent and hostile states. Şimdi, bir zamanlar onların egemenliği altında birleşmiş olan, ama şimdi pek çok bağımsız ve düşman devlete bölünmüş olan eyaletleri açık ve net bir şekilde tanımlamaya çalışacağız. Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same natural limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic Ocean. İmparatorluğun, Avrupa'nın ve eski dünyanın batı ucu olan İspanya, her çağda değişmez bir şekilde aynı doğal sınırları korumuştur; Pirene Dağları, Akdeniz ve Atlantik Okyanusu.

That great peninsula, at present so unequally divided between two sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into three provinces, Lusitania, Bætica, and Tarraconensis. Şu anda iki hükümdar arasında eşitsiz bir şekilde bölünmüş olan bu büyük yarımada, Augustus tarafından Lusitania, Bætica ve Tarraconensis olmak üzere üç eyalete dağıtıldı. The kingdom of Portugal now fills the place of the warlike country of the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by the former on the side of the East, is compensated by an accession of territory towards the North. Lusitanyalıların savaşçı ülkesinin yerini şimdi Portekiz krallığı dolduruyor; ve birincisinin Doğu tarafında uğradığı kayıp, Kuzey'e doğru bir toprak katılımıyla telafi edilir. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with those of ancient Bætica. Grenada ve Endülüs'ün sınırları, eski Bætica'nınkilere karşılık gelir. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, from the name of its capital, was styled the province of Tarragona. İspanya'nın geri kalanı, Gallicia ve Asturias, Biscay ve Navarre, Leon ve iki Kastilya, Murcia, Valencia, Katalonya ve Arragon, Roma hükümetlerinin üçüncü ve en önemlisini oluşturmaya katkıda bulundular. başkentinin adı Tarragona eyaleti olarak belirlendi. Of the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most obstinate. Yerli barbarlar arasında Keltiberler en güçlüleriydi, çünkü Cantabrialılar ve Asturyalılar en inatçı olduklarını kanıtladılar. Confident in the strength of their mountains, they were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. Dağlarının gücüne güvenerek, Roma'nın kollarına teslim olan son kişiler ve Arapların boyunduruğunu ilk atanlar onlardı. Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater extent than modern France. Pireneler, Alpler, Ren ve Okyanus arasındaki tüm ülkeyi kapsadığı için antik Galya, modern Fransa'dan daha büyüktü.

To the dominions of that powerful monarchy, with its recent acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. Yakın zamanda Alsace ve Lorraine'i satın aldığı bu güçlü monarşinin egemenliğine Savoy Dükalığı'nı, İsviçre kantonlarını, Ren'in dört seçmen bölgesini ve Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders ve Brabant. When Augustus gave laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, which had comprehended above a hundred independent states. Augustus, babasının fetihlerine kanunlar verdiğinde, lejyonların ilerleyişine, nehirlerin akışına ve yüzden fazla bağımsız devleti kapsayan başlıca ulusal ayrımlara eşit derecede uyarlanmış bir Galya tümenini tanıttı. The sea-coast of the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphine, received their provincial appellation from the colony of Narbonne. Akdeniz'in deniz kıyısı Languedoc, Provence ve Dauphine, taşra isimlerini Narbonne kolonisinden almıştır. The government of Aquitaine was extended from the Pyrenees to the Loire. Aquitaine hükümeti Pireneler'den Loire'a kadar genişletildi. The country between the Loire and the Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. Loire ve Seine arasındaki ülke, Kelt Galyası olarak adlandırıldı ve kısa süre sonra, ünlü Lugdunum veya Lyons kolonisinden yeni bir ad ödünç aldı. The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. Belgic, Seine'in ötesinde uzanıyordu ve daha eski zamanlarda sadece Ren Nehri ile sınırlanmıştı; ancak Sezar'ın çağından biraz önce Almanlar, yiğitlik üstünlüklerini kötüye kullanarak, Belçika topraklarının önemli bir bölümünü işgal etmişlerdi. The Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower Germany. Romalı fatihler böylesine gurur verici bir durumu büyük bir şevkle kucakladılar ve Basil'den Leyden'e kadar Ren'in Galya sınırı Yukarı ve Aşağı Almanya'nın şatafatlı isimlerini aldı. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, and to fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. Britanya'nın fethinden söz etme ve bu adadaki Roma eyaletinin sınırını belirleme fırsatı bulmuştuk.

It comprehended all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as far as the Friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Dumbarton Friths ve Edinburgh'a kadar tüm İngiltere, Galler ve İskoçya'nın Ovalarını kapsıyordu. Before Britain lost her freedom, the country was irregularly divided between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom the most considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, the Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. Britanya özgürlüğünü kaybetmeden önce ülke düzensiz bir şekilde otuz barbar kabilesi arasında bölünmüştü; bunların en önemlileri Batı'da Belgæ, Kuzey'de Brigantes, Güney Galler'de Silures ve Norfolk ve Suffolk'ta Iceni idi. As far as we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy race of savages. Görgü ve dil benzerliğinin izini sürebildiğimiz veya buna inanabildiğimiz kadarıyla, İspanya, Galya ve Britanya'da aynı dayanıklı vahşi ırk yaşıyordu. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed the field, and often renewed the contest. Roma kollarına boyun eğmeden önce, sık sık sahada tartıştılar ve sık sık yarışmayı yenilediler. After their submission, they constituted the western division of the European provinces, which extended from the columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth of the Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and Danube. Teslim olduktan sonra, Herkül'ün sütunlarından Antoninus'un duvarına ve Tagus'un ağzından Ren ve Tuna kaynaklarına kadar uzanan Avrupa eyaletlerinin batı bölümünü oluşturdular. Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy. Roma fethinden önce, şimdi Lombardiya olarak adlandırılan ülke, İtalya'nın bir parçası olarak görülmüyordu.

It had been occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves along the banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried their arms and diffused their name from the Alps to the Apennine. Piedmont'tan Romagna'ya kadar Po kıyılarına yerleşen, silahlarını taşıyan ve isimlerini Alpler'den Apennine'ye yayan güçlü bir Galyalı kolonisi tarafından işgal edilmişti. The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the republic of Genoa. Liguryalılar, şimdi Cenova cumhuriyetini oluşturan kayalık sahilde yaşadılar. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by the Venetians. Venedik henüz doğmamıştı; ancak bu devletin Adige'nin doğusunda kalan topraklarında Venedikliler yaşıyordu. The middle part of the peninsula, that now composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was the ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized life. Şimdi Toskana düklüğünü ve dini devleti oluşturan yarımadanın orta kısmı, Etrüskler ve Umbrialılar'ın antik merkeziydi; İtalya'nın uygar yaşamın ilk temellerini borçlu olduğu eskisine. The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her infant victories. Tyber, Roma'nın yedi tepesinin eteğinde yuvarlanıyordu ve o nehirden Napoli'nin sınırlarına kadar Sabinlerin, Latinlerin ve Volscilerin ülkesi, onun bebeklik dönemindeki zaferlerinin tiyatrosuydu. On that celebrated ground the first consuls deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and their posterity have erected convents. Bu ünlü zeminde ilk konsüller zaferleri hak ettiler, halefleri villaları süsledi ve onların torunları manastırlar dikti. Capua and Campania possessed the immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. Capua ve Campania, Napoli'nin yakın topraklarına sahipti; krallığın geri kalanında birçok savaşçı ulus, Marsi, Samnitler, Apulialılar ve Lucanyalılar yaşıyordu; ve deniz kıyıları gelişen Yunan kolonileri tarafından kaplanmıştı. We may remark, that when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little province of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. Augustus İtalya'yı on bir bölgeye ayırdığında, küçük Istria eyaletinin Roma egemenliğinin bu merkezine ilhak edildiğini belirtebiliriz. The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of the Rhine and the Danube. Roma'nın Avrupa eyaletleri, Ren ve Tuna nehirleri tarafından korunuyordu.

The latter of those mighty streams, which rises at the distance of only thirty miles from the former, flows above thirteen hundred miles, for the most part to the south-east, collects the tribute of sixty navigable rivers, and is, at length, through six mouths, received into the Euxine, which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of waters. İlkinden sadece otuz mil uzakta yükselen bu güçlü nehirlerin ikincisi, bin üç yüz milin üzerinde, çoğunlukla güneydoğuya akar, gezilebilir altmış nehir haraç toplar ve sonunda, Euxine'e alınan altı ağızdan, bu tür bir su katılımına pek eşit görünmüyor. The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, and were esteemed the most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. Tuna eyaletleri çok geçmeden Illyricum veya İlirya sınırı genel unvanını aldılar ve imparatorluğun en savaşçı eyaletleri olarak kabul edildiler; ancak Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Makedonya ve Yunanistan isimleri altında daha özel olarak ele alınmayı hak ediyorlar. The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks of the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the Inn. Vindelicians'ın adını kısa sürede söndüren Rhætia eyaleti, Alpler'in zirvesinden Tuna kıyılarına kadar uzanıyordu; kaynağından, Inn ile karıştığı yere kadar.

The greatest part of the flat country is subject to the elector of Bavaria; the city of Augsburg is protected by the constitution of the German empire; the Grisons are safe in their mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked among the numerous provinces of the house of Austria. Düz ülkenin büyük bir kısmı Bavyera seçmenine tabidir; Augsburg şehri, Alman imparatorluğunun anayasası tarafından korunmaktadır; Grisonlar dağlarında güvende ve Tirol ülkesi, Avusturya hanedanının sayısız eyaleti arasında yer alıyor. The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under the names of Noricum and Pannonia. Inn, Tuna ve Save arasındaki geniş topraklar -Avusturya, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Aşağı Macaristan ve Sclavonia- eskiler tarafından Noricum ve Pannonia adlarıyla biliniyordu.

In their original state of independence, their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Orijinal bağımsızlık durumlarında, vahşi sakinleri yakından bağlantılıydı. Under the Roman government they were frequently united, and they still remain the patrimony of a single family. Roma hükümeti altında sık sık birleşmişlerdi ve hala tek bir ailenin mirası olarak kalıyorlar. They now contain the residence of a German prince, who styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as well as strength, of the Austrian power. Şimdi, kendisini Romalıların İmparatoru ilan eden ve Avusturya gücünün hem merkezini hem de gücünü oluşturan bir Alman prensinin ikametgahını içeriyorlar. It may not be improper to observe, that if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of Austria, and a part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the other dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the limits of the Roman Empire. Bohemya, Moravya, Avusturya'nın kuzey etekleri ve Macaristan'ın Teyss ile Tuna arasındaki bir bölümü hariç tutulursa, Avusturya Hanedanı'nın diğer tüm hakimiyetlerinin Avusturya'nın sınırları içinde kaldığını gözlemlemek yanlış olmayabilir. Roma imparatorluğu. Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, was a long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. Illyricum adının daha doğru bir şekilde ait olduğu Dalmaçya, Save ile Adriyatik arasında uzun ama dar bir yoldu.

The best part of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient appellation, is a province of the Venetian state, and the seat of the little republic of Ragusa. Eski unvanını hâlâ koruyan deniz kıyısının en iyi kısmı, Venedik devletinin bir eyaleti ve küçük Ragusa cumhuriyetinin merkezidir. The inland parts have assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia; the former obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; but the whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the Christian and Mahometan power. İç kısımlar, Hırvatistan ve Bosna'nın Sclavonca isimlerini almıştır; ilki Avusturyalı bir valiye itaat ediyor, ikincisi bir Türk paşasına; ama tüm ülke hâlâ vahşi bağımsızlıkları düzensiz bir şekilde Hıristiyan ve Müslüman gücünün şüpheli sınırını belirleyen barbar kabilelerin istilasına uğramış durumda. After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the Save, it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister.

It formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we have already seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only province beyond the river. Daha önce, Mæsia ve Dacia'yı ikiye böldü, ikincisi, daha önce gördüğümüz gibi, Trajan'ın ve nehrin ötesindeki tek eyaletin fethiydi. If we inquire into the present state of those countries, we shall find that, on the left hand of the Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been annexed, after many revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the Ottoman Porte. Bu ülkelerin bugünkü durumunu araştırırsak, Tuna'nın sol tarafında, Temeşvar ve Transilvanya'nın birçok devrimden sonra Macaristan tacına ilhak edildiğini görürüz; Boğdan ve Eflak beylikleri ise Osmanlı Babıali'nin üstünlüğünü kabul ediyor. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, during the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. Tuna'nın sağında, Orta Çağ'da Sırbistan ve Bulgaristan'ın barbar krallıklarına bölünen Mæsia, yeniden Türk köleliğinde birleşti. The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks on the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, preserves the memory of their ancient state under the Roman empire. Türkler tarafından Trakya, Makedonya ve Yunanistan'ın geniş ülkelerine hala verilen Rumeli unvanı, onların Roma imparatorluğu altındaki eski devletlerinin hatırasını koruyor.

In the time of the Antonines, the martial regions of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a province. Antoninler zamanında Hæmus ve Rodop dağlarından İstanbul Boğazı ve Hellespont'a kadar Trakya'nın askeri bölgeleri bir eyalet şeklini almıştı. Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great monarchy. Konstantin tarafından Boğaz'ın kıyısında kurulan yeni Roma şehri, efendilerin ve dinin değişmesine rağmen, o zamandan beri büyük bir monarşinin başkenti olarak kaldı. The kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived more solid advantages from the policy of the two Philips; and with its dependencies of Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the Ionian Sea. İskender'in hükümdarlığı altında Asya'ya kanunlar veren Makedonya krallığı, iki Philips'in politikasından daha sağlam avantajlar elde etti; Ege'den İyon Denizi'ne kadar uzanan Epir ve Teselya'ya bağlı olduğu bölge. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the Roman empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan league, was usually denominated the province of Achaia. Thebes ve Argos'un, Sparta ve Atina'nın ününü düşündüğümüzde, antik Yunan'daki pek çok ölümsüz cumhuriyetin, Achaean'ın üstün etkisinden dolayı Roma imparatorluğunun tek bir eyaletinde kaybolduğuna kendimizi zar zor ikna edebiliyoruz. lig, genellikle Achaia eyaleti olarak adlandırılıyordu. Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors.

The provinces of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of Trajan, are all comprehended within the limits of the Turkish power. But, instead of following the arbitrary divisions of despotism and ignorance, it will be safer for us, as well as more agreeable, to observe the indelible characters of nature. Ancak despotizm ve cehaletin keyfi ayrımlarına uymak yerine, doğanın silinmez karakterlerini gözlemlemek bizim için hem daha güvenli hem de daha hoş olacaktır. The name of Asia Minor is attributed with some propriety to the peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. Küçük Asya'nın adı, kısmen de olsa, Euxine ve Akdeniz arasında kalan ve Fırat'tan Avrupa'ya doğru ilerleyen yarımadaya atfedilir. The most extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus and the River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the exclusive title of Asia. Toros Dağı'nın ve Halys Nehri'nin batısındaki en geniş ve gelişen bölge, Romalılar tarafından özel olarak Asya unvanıyla onurlandırıldı. The jurisdiction of that province extended over the ancient monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in arts, though not in arms, the glory of their parent. Bu eyaletin yetki alanı Truva, Lidya ve Frigya'nın eski monarşilerine, Pamfilyalıların, Likyalıların ve Karyalıların deniz ülkelerine ve İyonya'nın Grek kolonilerine uzanıyordu; ebeveynleri. The kingdoms of Bithynia and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from Constantinople to Trebizond. Bithynia ve Pontus krallıkları, Konstantinopolis'ten Trabzon'a kadar olan yarımadanın kuzey tarafını ele geçirdiler. On the opposite side, the province of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and from Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent kingdom of Cappadocia. Karşı tarafta, Kilikya eyaleti Suriye dağlarıyla son buluyordu: Roma Asya'sından Halys Nehri ile ve Ermenistan'dan Fırat ile ayrılan iç ülke, bir zamanlar bağımsız Kapadokya krallığını oluşturmuştu. In this place we may observe, that the northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or Roman garrisons. Bu yerde, Euxine'nin kuzey kıyılarının, Asya'da Trabzon'un ötesinde ve Avrupa'da Tuna'nın ötesinde imparatorların egemenliğini kabul ettiğini ve ellerine ya haraca bağlı prensler ya da Roma garnizonları aldığını gözlemleyebiliriz. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, are the modern appellations of those savage countries. Budzak, Crim Tatary, Circassia ve Mingrelia, bu vahşi ülkelerin modern unvanlarıdır. Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the Seleucidæ, who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful revolt of the Parthians confined their dominions between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean. İskender'in halefleri altında Suriye, Partların başarılı isyanı egemenliklerini Fırat ve Akdeniz arasında sınırlayana kadar Yukarı Asya'da hüküm süren Seleucidæ'nin merkeziydi.

When Syria became subject to the Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of their empire: nor did that province, in its utmost latitude, know any other bounds than the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards the south, the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Suriye, Romalılara tabi olduğunda, imparatorluklarının doğu sınırını oluşturdu: en geniş enleminde bu eyalet, kuzeyde Kapadokya dağlarından ve güneyde Mısır'ın sınırlarından başka sınır tanımıyordu. ve Kızıldeniz. Phoenicia and Palestine were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the jurisdiction of Syria. Fenike ve Filistin, Suriye'nin yargı yetkisine bazen ilhak edildi, bazen de ondan ayrıldı. The former of these was a narrow and rocky coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, either in fertility or extent. Bunlardan ilki dar ve kayalık bir sahildi; ikincisi, doğurganlık veya kapsam açısından Galler'den pek üstün olmayan bir bölgeydi. * Yet Phoenicia and Palestine will forever live in the memory of mankind; since America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one, and religion from the other. * Yine de Fenike ve Filistin insanlığın hafızasında sonsuza dek yaşayacak; çünkü Avrupa gibi Amerika da birinden mektup, diğerinden din almıştır. A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Fırat'tan Kızıldeniz'e kadar, Suriye'nin şüpheli sınırı boyunca, aynı şekilde ağaçtan ve sudan yoksun kumlu bir çöl uzanır. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably connected with their independence; and wherever, on some spots less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many settled habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman empire. Arapların gezgin hayatı, bağımsızlıklarıyla ayrılmaz bir şekilde bağlantılıydı; ve bazı yerlerde, diğerlerinden daha az çorak yerlerde, pek çok yerleşim yeri için gitmeye cesaret ettiler, kısa sürede Roma imparatorluğunun tebaası oldular. The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what portion of the globe they should ascribe Egypt. Antik çağın coğrafyacıları, Mısır'ı yerkürenin hangi kısmına atfetmeleri gerektiği konusunda sık sık tereddüt ettiler.

By its situation that celebrated kingdom is included within the immense peninsula of Africa; but it is accessible only on the side of Asia, whose revolutions, in almost every period of history, Egypt has humbly obeyed. Bu ünlü krallık, konumu itibariyle uçsuz bucaksız Afrika yarımadasına dahildir; ancak yalnızca tarihin hemen her döneminde devrimlerine Mısır'ın alçakgönüllülükle itaat ettiği Asya tarafında erişilebilir. A Roman præfect was seated on the splendid throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the Mamelukes is now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. Ptolemies'in görkemli tahtında bir Romalı papaz oturuyordu; ve Memluklerin demir asası artık bir Türk paşasının elindedir. The Nile flows down the country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the Mediterranean, and marks on either side of the extent of fertility by the measure of its inundations. Nil, Yengeç Dönencesi'nden Akdeniz'e beş yüz milin üzerinde ülkenin aşağısına akar ve taşkınlarının ölçüsüyle doğurganlığın her iki tarafında da işaretler. Cyrene, situate towards the west, and along the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, and is now lost in the desert of Barca. Batıya doğru ve deniz kıyısı boyunca yer alan Kirene, önce bir Yunan kolonisi, daha sonra Mısır'ın bir eyaletiydi ve şimdi Barca çölünde kayboldu. From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above fifteen hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the Mediterranean and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth seldom exceeds fourscore or a hundred miles. Kirene'den okyanusa, Afrika kıyıları bin beş yüz milin üzerinde uzanır; yine de Akdeniz ile Sahra ya da kumlu çöl arasında o kadar sıkışıktır ki, genişliği nadiren seksen ya da yüz mili geçer.

The eastern division was considered by the Romans as the more peculiar and proper province of Africa. Doğu bölümü, Romalılar tarafından Afrika'nın daha tuhaf ve uygun eyaleti olarak görülüyordu. Till the arrival of the Phnician colonies, that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the most savage of mankind. Phnician kolonilerinin gelişine kadar, bu verimli ülkede insanlığın en vahşisi olan Libyalılar yaşadı. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states of Tripoli and Tunis. Kartaca'nın doğrudan yetkisi altında, ticaretin ve imparatorluğun merkezi haline geldi; ama Kartaca cumhuriyeti artık yozlaşarak zayıf ve düzensiz Trablus ve Tunus eyaletlerine dönüştü. The military government of Algiers oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united under Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of Cæsariensis. Cezayir'in askeri hükümeti, bir zamanlar Massinissa ve Jugurtha altında birleşmiş olan Numidia'nın geniş bir bölümünü eziyor; ancak Augustus zamanında Numidia'nın sınırları daralmıştı; ve ülkenin en az üçte ikisi Moritanya adına Cæsariensis lakabıyla razı oldu. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by the modern kingdom of Fez. Antik Tingi kentinden veya Tangier'den Tingitana unvanıyla ayrılan gerçek Moritanya veya Moors ülkesi, modern Fes krallığı tarafından temsil edilir. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at present for its piratical depredations, was noticed by the Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost of their geography. Okyanus kıyısındaki, şu anda korsan yağmalarıyla çok kötü bir üne sahip olan Salle, Romalılar tarafından güçlerinin ve neredeyse coğrafyalarının en uç noktası olarak görülüyordu. A city of their foundation may still be discovered near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were ever comprehended within the Roman province. Fas İmparatoru olarak kabul ettiğimiz barbarın ikametgahı olan Mequinez yakınlarında, onların temellerine ait bir şehir hâlâ keşfedilebilir; ancak daha güneydeki hakimiyetleri olan Fas'ın kendisi ve Segelmessa'nın hiçbir zaman Roma eyaleti içinde kavrandığı görünmüyor. The western parts of Africa are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so idly celebrated by the fancy of poets; but which is now diffused over the immense ocean that rolls between the ancient and the new continent. Afrika'nın batı kesimleri, şairlerin hayal gücüyle boş yere övülen bir isim olan Atlas Dağı'nın dallarıyla kesişir; ama şimdi eski ve yeni kıta arasında gidip gelen uçsuz bucaksız okyanusa yayılmış durumda. Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may observe, that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of about twelve miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the Mediterranean. Roma imparatorluğunun çevresini artık bitirdiğimize göre, Afrika'nın İspanya'dan Atlantik'in Akdeniz'e döküldüğü yaklaşık on iki millik dar bir boğazla ayrıldığını gözlemleyebiliriz.

The columns of Hercules, so famous among the ancients, were two mountains which seemed to have been torn asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot of the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. Eskiler arasında çok ünlü olan Herkül'ün sütunları, elementlerin bir tür sarsıntısıyla parçalanmış gibi görünen iki dağdı; ve Avrupa dağının eteğinde, Cebelitarık kalesi artık oturmuştur. The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Akdeniz'in tamamı, kıyıları ve adaları Roma hakimiyetindeydi. Of the larger islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the former to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. Daha büyük adalardan, Mayorka ve Minorka adlarını büyüklüklerinden alan iki Balear Adaları, şu anda birincisi İspanya'ya, ikincisi Büyük Britanya'ya tabidir. * It is easier to deplore the fate, than to describe the actual condition, of Corsica. * Korsika'nın gerçek durumunu anlatmaktansa kaderine üzülmek daha kolaydır. Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title from Sardinia and Sicily. İki İtalyan hükümdarı, Sardunya ve Sicilya'dan bir kraliyet unvanı alıyor. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into fame and opulence. Girit ya da Candia, Kıbrıs ve Yunanistan ile Asya'daki daha küçük adaların çoğu Türk silahları tarafından boyunduruk altına alınırken, Malta'nın küçük kayası güçlerine meydan okuyor ve askeri Düzeninin hükümeti altında ortaya çıktı. şöhret ve zenginlik. This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have formed so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to forgive the vanity or ignorance of the ancients. Kırık parçaları pek çok güçlü krallık oluşturan eyaletlerin bu uzun sayımı, eskilerin kibrini veya cehaletini neredeyse affetmemize neden olabilir.

Dazzled with the extensive sway, the irresistible strength, and the real or affected moderation of the emperors, they permitted themselves to despise, and sometimes to forget, the outlying countries which had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous independence; and they gradually usurped the license of confounding the Roman monarchy with the globe of the earth. İmparatorların geniş hakimiyeti, karşı konulamaz gücü ve gerçek ya da yapmacık ılımlılığı karşısında gözleri kamaşarak, barbarca bir bağımsızlığın keyfine varılmış olan uzak ülkeleri hor görmelerine ve bazen unutmalarına izin verdiler; ve yavaş yavaş Roma monarşisini dünya küresiyle karıştırma yetkisini gasp ettiler. But the temper, as well as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and accurate language. Ancak modern bir tarihçinin bilgisi kadar mizacı da daha ölçülü ve doğru bir dil gerektirir. He may impress a juster image of the greatness of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it extended in length more than three thousand miles from the Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was supposed to contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated land. İmparatorluğun Antoninus surlarından Dacia'nın kuzey sınırlarına, Atlas Dağı'na ve Yengeç Dönencesi'ne kadar iki bin milin üzerinde bir genişliğe sahip olduğunu gözlemleyerek, Roma'nın büyüklüğünün daha adil bir görüntüsünü etkileyebilir; uzunluğunun Batı Okyanusu'ndan Fırat'a kadar üç bin milden fazla uzandığını; kuzey enleminin yirmi dördüncü ve elli altıncı dereceleri arasında, Ilıman Bölge'nin en güzel yerinde yer aldığını; ve çoğu verimli ve iyi ekilmiş arazi olmak üzere bin altı yüz bin mil kareden fazlasını içermesi gerekiyordu.